Aviation Safety

Aviation Safety Introduction Carelessness can be defined as ignorance or incorrectly assessing a risk. According to NTSB (2003), it is important to carefully follow maintenance and inspection procedures in order to avert aircraft related accidents, safeguard company property, and save life. By and large, most aircraft emergencies and fatal accidents are as a result of mistakes that occur during the process of maintenance and inspection.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Aviation Safety specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Looking at the number of accidents witnessed annually in the sector, it is quite obvious that the training offered to mechanics during their formative stages is not yielding the expected results. Apart from the aviation industry, many other accidents can also be attributed to human error. This paper presents a discussion on mistakes that occur during maintenance and inspection and how they affect the operations of air carriers as well as consumers. Maintenance Related Concerns As can be deduced from past studies, human related errors are to blame for the high number of accidents occurring due negligence, and failure by aviation maintenance technicians to comply with stipulated maintenance standards and procedures (CAA, 2002). Statistically, associated number of accidents has continued to increase and this can be linked to issues such as technical engine failure. Sadly, the repercussions are serious and lead to deaths and severe damage to property and human life (Dillingham, 2010). Similarly, the reputation of the air carriers has been dwindling due to such accidents. Because of the complex nature of the problem, it has been a challenge to come up with concrete solutions. Consequently, the situation has continued unabated. Regardless of whether maintenance related aircraft accidents are new to the aviation industry, the awareness of the need for aviation safety implies that should be thorou ghly investigated. Presently, the increase in the number of accidents due to poor maintenance and inspection is a major concern to many stakeholders (CASA, 2012). It is, therefore, important to shift focus from investigating the performance of flight crews and to concentrate more on establishing where the problem lies within the maintenance and inspection units. Apparently, this has been largely ignored in a number of past investigations. In areas where the possibility of errors is quite high, the task of aircraft maintenance and inspection can be extremely complex and quite varied. One of the greatest concerns is that aviation maintenance technicians often have to work under very strict deadlines. Although these technicians understand the importance of meeting scheduled departure times, it is unhealthy for them to be made to work under pressure.Advertising Looking for research paper on aviation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn M ore To ease the pressure on aviation maintenance technicians, it is necessary for air carriers to employ additional staff and to designs flexible working plans for the maintenance crew. Among other benefits, this will reduce fatigue and grant them an opportunity to rest and embark on their duties when they are very fresh and feeling energized. Another concern that has been raised is that aircraft maintenance technicians are required to take care of very old aircrafts (Holanda, 2009). In general, this is can be very exhaustive, creates a stressful work environment, wastes so much time, and is quite involving. The demands on aviation maintenance technician increases further as new aircrafts are added to the fleet. The need to take care of old as well new aircraft poses challenges to the maintenance crew and requires familiarity with both technologies. A very highly skilled workforce is thus critical if air carriers are to effectively deal with emerging maintenance issues (CASA , 2012). Besides having a strong educational background, wide experience is a distinct added advantage for any aviation maintenance expert. Fortunately, there is an increased recognition of the significance of human factors in aviation safety. Subsequently, safety and effectiveness of aircrafts is now closely associated with the performance of aircraft of maintenance technicians. Human Error and Aviation safety According to Conquest and Beckett (2003), the effect from technical failures is quite negligible in comparison to that from human error. As such, it is imperative to ensure that the needs of aviation maintenance technicians are fully met. In a recent exercise carried out by Boeing Commercial Airplane Company, three things that lead to accidents include the fact that flight crews fail to adhere to procedures, the existence of maintenance and inspection errors, and design factors. Human Error in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection Generally, human error in the aviation industry becomes obvious when aircraft failures that are linked to the actions or non actions of aircraft maintenance technicians happen (CAA, 2002). However, the failure experienced may be due to other factors and not necessarily because of the inability of maintenance technicians to deliver effectively. It is also possible that during a maintenance exercise an anomaly may be undetected, leading to aircraft failure and subsequently, an accident. To a large extent, many past accidents have been linked to human errors as major contributors (Conquest Beckett, 2003). While in some cases, accidents can directly be attributed to human error, the same may not be said of certain accidents where poor maintenance is seen to have partially contributed to the occurrence of an accident.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Aviation Safety specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In a list published by the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Aut hority, the major problems resulting from unprofessional practice during maintenance include poor installations of aircraft components, use of unauthorized aircraft parts, poor electrical wiring, unsatisfactory lubrication of movable parts, and fastenings that are left incomplete. According to CASA (2022), there are numerous issues that can lead to maintenance errors. While some are easily noticeable, others may completely be hidden. To address these issues, it is imperative for the air carriers to require all aviation maintenance technicians to strictly follow outlined maintenance procedures while performing maintenance tasks. Aviation maintenance technicians must be made to understand the importance of being extremely vigilant. Any form of negligence must be avoided at all costs and stakeholders must steer away from actions or non actions that can be detrimental to the effective performance of an aircraft. Where an aviation maintenance technician deliberately acts in a manner like ly to create problems for the aircraft and the air carrier company, he or she must be subjected to some form of punishment. In order to effectively deal with problems created by human error, concerned persons must diligently carry out thorough investigations and interpret findings in a way that will benefits the carrier company as well as general public. Contributing human factors or any individual involved must be identified and appropriate measures should be taken to avoid a repeat of the same at a later time. In various past studies, it is evident that while organizations can be a source of accidents due to negligent acts, they can also help to prevent the occurrence of accidents and save human life. However, the ability of organizations to address safety issues in their operations depends so much on the technology available to them. While organizations with improved technology are better placed to effectively deal with identified safety concerns, those without such technology su ffer serious challenges and are unable to address safety problems even after they have been detected.Advertising Looking for research paper on aviation? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Apparently, the promotion of safety as well as prevention of accidents in the aviation sector is rarely looked at as a human problem that must be dealt with by ensuring that aviation maintenance technicians are well prepared. Better results can, however, be realized when the training offered is accompanied with strict follow ups to ensure that trainees effectively utilize the skills learnt. Obviously, the rising number of accidents point to the fact that aviation maintenance technicians are not putting skills learnt to good use as it is widely expected. Because of carelessness, technicians have ended up causing serious irreversible damage to humanity and air carrier companies. It is also very important for top management in organizations to ensure that staff members are serious about their work. Without some form of reinforcement from senior personnel in the organization, the problem will continue uncontrollably. Strong support from the top is, therefore, a key requirement. Ordinari ly, errors do not happen in isolation. They occur within the context of organizations which can either resist or promote them. Ideally, this implies that organizations have the liberty to decide how to deal with safety concerns that affect their day to day business operations. On the one hand, they can choose to let things get worse, and hence cause more problems for themselves and the general public while on the other hand, they can decide to implement strict measures that will see an end to laxity and alleviate any problems in future. It is, therefore imperative for the organization to have very strong and reliable leadership at the top to avoid the promotion of mediocre standards. Departures from approved procedures must be avoided at all costs and senior managers must see to it that all aviation maintenance technicians perform their functions as expected. Refusal to follow outlined guidelines as well as logging requirements to perform maintenance tasks is unacceptable and must n ot be entertained by anyone in the organization. Human Error in the Maintenance Environment Typically, unique characteristics are bound to shape human error within the maintenance environment (Huang, 2009). To a great extent, this is thought to be completely different when compared to other operational departments of an organization. One of the biggest challenges faced by aviation maintenance technician is that unlike problems seen in other departments, maintenance related errors cannot be identified at the time of occurrence. In some cases, the aviation maintenance technician who makes an error may fail to realize it as it may happen long after the maintenance has taken place. Ordinarily, detected human errors associated with maintenance only become obvious when an aircraft malfunctions and it is generally not easy to identify the real cause of the error. Errors are thus discussed with regard to failures encountered with aircrafts. According to Goldman et al. (2002), communication is a very important factor to consider in aircraft maintenance. In most cases, communication breakdown among stakeholders leads to unexpected repercussions. The huge amount of information created must be properly disseminate to the right recipients and where possible properly stored for future reference. Besides, it is important to ensure that any information sent out is in a form that can be effectively understood by whoever receives it. Ineffective communication to the maintenance crew, for example, can have a very damaging outcome. Communication must be put in the simplest possible form and the use of technical jargon must be avoided so as to ensure that the recipient understands the communication relayed. When maintenance problems are encountered, communication must be sent to the manufacturer before it is late, to get the correct remedy. If ignored, this could lower the performance level of an aircraft and in some cases lead to unnecessary expenses. Although communication betwe en airlines is never easy to do, it is necessary and the maintenance crew must be encouraged to get involved. Lack of or poor communication within the organization’s maintenance unit can also be very dangerous (Goldman et al, 2002). For there to be unity, and for everyone to move towards the same direction, there must be smooth communication. It is, therefore, the responsibility of the unit head to keep the communication fire burning within the organization. Whenever issues are encountered, these must be dealt with immediately so that people can move on. Any complicated issues can, however, be escalated to senior managers in the organization for further attention and advice. In a worse case scenario, a breakdown in communication can easily lead to delays in delivery of critical services and this can in turn affect the general operation of the airline. In the event that such misunderstandings affect the customer, the biggest loser will be the company. Conclusion Given the tigh t link that exists between human error and aviation safety, it is certainly not easy to effectively deal with the resultant problems. Although well structured training programs and strong leadership can be of great help, good will from the aviation maintenance technicians is vital. Without whole hearted support from these technicians, any efforts to deal with aviation safety will bear very little or no fruit at all. As has been explained in this paper, detecting human errors in the aviation industry is not easy. Errors tend to be detected long after they have happened and usually, they tend to occur in the absence of the aviation maintenance technicians. Analysis is thus based mostly on assumptions rather than on concrete evidence. This notwithstanding, organizations must take all the necessary precautions to guarantee the safety of their staff members, customers, and aircrafts. Proper guidelines and procedures must be put in place and the maintenance crew should be equipped with cr itical skills to help them carry out their tasks. Dissatisfaction among staff and lack of concern will lead to serious damage and must be addressed fully. Aviation maintenance technicians and by extension, all other employees, must be treated with respect. They must all form an opinion that the organization has their interests well catered for. When all is said and done, it is the organization’s reputation that is at stake. Other important considerations are effective communication at all levels and well organized of trainings for aviation maintenance technicians. However, as noted earlier, it is imperative to devise follow up programs that will make it possible to reinforce the skills learnt during the training. It is of no use for people to receive world class training but fail to utilize it effectively. References Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). (2002). Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Web. Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA). (2012). SMS for Aviati on – A Practical Guide. Web. Conquest, T. Beckett, B. A. (2003). Aviation Safety: Better Guidance and Training Needed on Providing Files on Pilots Background Information. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing. Dillingham, G. L. (2010). Aviation Safety: Improved Data Quality and Analysis Capabilities are needed as FAA Plans a Risk-Based Approach to Safety Oversight. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing. Goldman, S. M., Fiedler, E. R. King, R. E. (2002). General Aviation Maintenance Related Accidents: A Review of Ten Years of NTSB Data. Web. National Transport Safety Board (NTSB). (2013). Mechanics: Managing Risks to Ensure Safety. Web. Holanda, R. (2009). A History of Aviation Safety: Featuring the U. S. Airline System. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse Publishing. Huang, J. (2009). Aviation Safety through the Rule of Law: ICAOs Mechanisms and Practices. Frederick, MD: Kluwer Law International.

Hoist With His Own Petard

Hoist With His Own Petard Hoist With His Own Petard Hoist With His Own Petard By Maeve Maddox I think Keith Olbermann may have had something to do with popularizing this Shakespearean expression. In July 2005 Olbermann, writing about the London bus bombing, wrote: July 21st may turn out to be the day the terrorists began to blow themselves up - hoist themselves, as the Middle English phrase goes, â€Å"on their own petard.† I cant guess why he called it a Middle English phrase. The expression, meaning blown up by his own bomb, comes from Shakespeares time (1605). By then, Middle English had morphed into Modern English. As recently as Election Eve 2008, Olbermann was still using the phrase: Im trying to give Gov. Palin out there, a couple more seconds to figure out how she managed to get herself, as Shakespeare wrote of people destroyed by their own evil plans, hoist with her own petard.† Keith Olbermann October 31, 2008 Here is how the expression is used in Hamlet (III, iv, 206-208): For tis the sport to have the enginer Hoist with his own petar, ant shall go hard But I will delve one yard below their mines, And blow them at the moon. Hamlet is talking about his old college chums Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Theyve been spying on him for the king, and Hamlet suspects they are laying a trap for him. Hes planning his own preà «mptive strike. A petar was an explosive device. It got its name from the French verb pà ªter, which means to break wind. The Old French noun pet means fart. Shakespeare was making one of his earthy puns here. Note that in the original expression, hoist is a verb in the past tense. Writers who want to use the expression correctly need to keep that fact in mind. The hoist of current English usage retains the same meaning, to raise, to lift up, but in modern usage, the past tense form has been regularized to hoisted. Ex. The crane hoisted the girder into place. Commentators who dont know their Shakespeare get it wrong: The amusing context for this interview, was watching Keith Olbermann hoisted on his own petard. Donklephant, March 15, 2008. I mean who are the REAL victims here? CBS News has been hoisted on its own petard Cecelia, commenting on Dan Rather scandal, January 24, 2005. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Has vs. HadAbstract Nouns from Adjectives25 Idioms with Clean

Decision Making Case Study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Decision Making Case Study - Research Paper Example The first step is to create a question that has no judgment in it. according to Rundall et al. (2007), the question must be to the point and not too broad or narrow. In this case, the question that may be appropriate is, "Which programs that we have now are most used by our patients?" This question would get to the heart of the problem. When program managers need to cut services they sometimes cut across the board instead of looking at the changes that can be made without interrupting services. In this step, the manager gathers information from a variety of sources. This means they are not only paying attention to their department, but they are gaining knowledge form the people who are using services as well as suppliers, colleagues, and anyone else who has a stake in the organization. This should also include the board members. According to Gudes, Kendall, Yigitcanlar, Pathak and Baum (2010), involving major stakeholders and users of services in decision making insures that information comes from diverse sources and encourages strong collaboration between those interested in the organization. Also, this collaboration insures that change is an ongoing process instead of a series of one shot deals. In a clinical setting, having several people to give information allows for an understanding of the full picture, which is very important when services must be cut. I found that the websites in this section were very good for funding information on a global level. They provided current research that could be used to compare and contrast specific information to see the bigger picture for Medicaid and situations in a clinical setting. Rundall et al. (2007) suggest that in this step, the organization must take a deeper look at the evidence and make sure that it is "accurate, applicable, actionable and accessible" (p. 336). This is an important step because after step 2, there will be a wealth of information

Reaction Outcome Evaluation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Reaction Outcome Evaluation - Assignment Example As per Kirkpatrick’s Reaction Outcome Evaluation, the first level of evaluation would be to identify how the participants responded to the training program. One can say that this is the most important part of the evaluation as to pin-point at which area the program is needed to be modified. This is despite the fact that a number of reviewers are not agreeing at this level and acknowledging individuality as the reason. As the latter statements being declared, the evaluation system by Kirkpatrick would need tedious observation and an equal amount of understanding before one could conclude if the training conducted was successful or not (Rae, 2002). In evaluating the training program conducted, there seems to be a lack of interest within the employees themselves. One reason for this could be the fact that there are fewer interactions between participants in the program as the training was computer-based. Another factor, which could have affected the attitude of the employees, would be the fact that the training was to be done during an available time for an employee. Instead of enjoying a well-deserve break, two hours of it would be spent doing the computer-based training program. Also, if a module is not that much understood by the employee, only a limited number of resource person can be approached with an immediate response. This fact does affect the comprehension of an employee as the concern was not answered in a timely manner. Another reason is that, a person can just scan through the module without fully understanding it just to say that the employee has finished the training. The reason for the failure of the program wa s it was not properly supervised (Toney, 2002). Though paper-less training could be more practical, it should be properly executed and supervised. As per the recently concluded training, the execution was not on the basis of training

The use of the loose coupling theory

The use of the loose coupling theory Loose coupling theory proposes that different parts of an organization are loosely related to one another. This can be understood as that different divisions of an organization are loosely coupled with one another, i.e. activities in the higher education department are loosely coupled to those in the English department activities in one department have a minimal impact, or take a long time to show up, in the other. The main thesis of his article is to argue that there are seven pros and corresponding cons of loose couplings. According to Weick (1976), loose coupling is a cognitive response to an environment of constant change, in which connections, networks, diffusion, imitation, and social comparison are less prevalent. The loose coupling systems (LCSs) are uncoordinated and have greater differentiation among components, high degrees of specialization among workers, and low predictability of future action, including change. In general, loosely coupled systems probably are cheaper t o coordinate, but are very difficult to systematically change. The goal of Weicks article is to show that all organizations do not function with tight linkages some organizations, like educational systems, are more loose, which may create more difficult problems for researchers. The loosely coupled approach has a strong parallel in more recent approaches to viewing organizations as complex systems, which has attracted considerable interest among management and organizational theorists. Birnbaum argues that complex systems such as collegial or bureaucratic institution models provide insights to the analysis of LCSs. Complex systems are bottom-up phenomena, also defined as systems comprising large numbers of agents in highly connected webs, can display both high levels of order and disorder. Importantly, order in complex systems is usually a result of micro-structuring processes that provide for robust self-organization. This form of order is not dependent on hierarchical control but is distributed, and it can lead to system-wide stability (or instability). Complex systems do well when they engage in a search for healthier and better-off states, otherwise searches are directed from the top down, and system will likely settle into only moderately fit states. Al so systems must be relatively free to interact with other systems until good fitting strategies are found. Complex systems have slow response times not because they are any slower than simpler systems in detecting environmental threats and opportunities, but because the process of adjustment takes longer. Educational systems demonstrate considerable robustness and resilience in the face of both environmental and intended change, thus the key is to focus on relationships and the building of similar behavior based around trust. Weick (1976) notes that more loosely coupled organizations offer advantages in complex environments. More autonomous groups may be more sensitive to environmental change, and offer more simultaneously adaptation to conflicting demands at the institutional level. If problems develop in one part of the system, it can be sealed off from the rest of the system. Efforts to create a less loosely coupled system or to control and centralize have not altered the overall complex system, which still remains loosely coupled. The concept of LCS is crucial to Rhoades argument about strategic activity. While Weicks strengths and challenges related to LCSs are positioned in difficulties to change organizations systematically, Rhoades approach calls for development of strategic activity through managerialism. Rhoades emphasizes that managerialism and market approaches are two sets of ideas that recently have influenced educational decision-making processes. The problem with these ideas, especially in loosely tight educational organizations, is that although it provided some change, it may not provide a basis for future improvement in education, especially in student learning. Within this model there is an assumption that there is a tight coupling between education policy (e.g. curriculum) and how teachers teach. Where improved performance is sought it is pursued through the manipulation of formal mechanisms such as rules, procedures, rewards or changed evaluation. Bureaucratic hierarchies have however been in creasingly criticized for being non-responsive and inefficient means for organizing public administration. With respect to education, they have certainly proven resistant to change. Managerial initiative is important to Rhoades in moving the universities forward, which is in contrast with loose couplings assumption where planned change has a low predictability as is unlikely to be successful within loose coupling environment. Loose coupling concept also poses some problems for leaders who want to change their organizations. Pfeffer and Salancik (1978) were well aware of this problem of change in loosely coupled systems. They argued that administrators could get around it by finding ways to tighten the coupling patters in their organizations, such as reorganization and stabilization of exchange relationships. The idea was to reduce internal and external variability in the system so that it could be more easily controlled. Thus, loosely coupled organizations can embrace change because its impact is limited. For instance, the English department can change without any punishment if no other departments are affected by its changes the loosely coupled organization as a whole isolates and neutralizes disturbance; however, change is slow. External as well as internal influences are absorbed by this organizational structure. So, the individual departments are not themselves typically difficult to change; rather, the problem lies in getting the entire organization to change, in diffusing the change across the networks. Birnbaum (1988) clearly articulates that to strengthen academic leadership, one must reform structures, adopt more rationalized management systems, and increase the power of executive leadership to make faster, more efficient, and more effective decisions, but for leadership to be effective within LCS, communication has to be present as a sense of general openness in institutional governance and climate. Leaders create organized disorder in which dynamic things happen at multiple locales within the system, thus creating a new behavior rather than controlling organizational activities. Also, the application of data to interaction permits information to influence preferences and possibilities, and that leads to decisions grounded in reality. It is not only about collection, analysis, and dissemination of data, but also about different constituents being interested in that data a nd how it interacts (Birnbaum, 1988). The interaction leads not only to positive administrative decision-making, but also to being rational and looking for consensus among loosely coupled units. Complex organizations cannot function effectively over the long term without leaders to coordinate the activities, represent them, and symbolize the institutional purpose (Birnbaum, 1988). As to administrative decision-making, Weick (1976) notices that LCSs are difficult to change systematically, thus any decision-making change that has to be discussed will encounter a problem of systematic change. The issue with implementation of any administrative change will always come down to the fact that teaching is isolated work and improving instruction is strictly a matter of individual initiative. Thus, the problem with administrative decision-making in LCS is that colleges do not show any collective impact on student learning. The problem with it is also that decision-making is explicitly and directly concerned with the instructional core of education by arguing that educational institutions and their faculty and staff need to be accountable for student learning. Moreover, loose coupling implies that the source of an effect may be located at a considerable distance in time or organizational structure from the effect itself, thus amplification of non-linear cycles makes it p ossible for an insignificant decision to have a major effect as it moves through the system over time (Birnbaum, 1988, p. 71). Birnbaum describes this as butterfly effect and indicates that cause and effect are difficult to predict or determine in loose coupling model. Moreover, circular systems that he describes may also imply about administrative decision-making. He encourages thinking in circles as thinking of unintended consequences that may arise with complexity of how things interact. Although, institutional prestige, faculty morale, student enrollment, and sense of community are crucial for this model, the feedback loops are missing from this model as well as culture of the organization. Also, local adaptations will not always assist with generating efficient responses to system-wide challenges in a decision-making process. Loose coupling implies slow diffusion of central initiatives. As a consequence, the administrator would have to start projects earlier, start more project s, start projects in a greater variety of places, and even talk more frequently about those projects that have been started. The perspective of educational systems as being loosely coupled seems to be weak at explaining one major decision making fact that approaches to schooling have remained remarkably uniform across geography and time. If education systems are loosely coupled, diverse practices should emerge in response to differing local needs and differing ideas about education. Loose coupling can account for the diversity of ways in which units implement different decisions; for instance, the RCM is the way to find innovative options to strengthen individual units where the center does not correlate with units (Rhoades, 2000). In order to improve administrative decision-making, the administrator should emphasize the role of interaction among an organizations members, as well as collaboration and negotiation as methods to determine how decisions should be carried. 2. The Mode 2 knowledge production model is perhaps the most well-known term used to indicate the impact of changes for the university sector. Gibbons et. al.(1994) in the mid-1990s presented their Mode 2 theory saying that university researchers, who previously most often worked on internal disciplinary Mode 1 problems, were now more inclined to involve themselves closely in industrial and governmental research collaborations. Economical factors were seen to be the drivers, as closer relations between university research and industry developed to meet competition from the growing economies. This trend prompted new organizations such as think tanks or hybrid organizations, which often were places where the new front research was to be found. Gibbons et. al. referred to these as Mode 2 organizations, seeing them as generic for the whole research landscape. It seems that Mode 2 model especially in research area was a result of a general economic development towards post-industrialism. Moreover, mode 2 knowledge production model is application-based, and can be explored in an interdisciplinary fashion. As such, the emergence of Mode 2 production would not eclipse Mode 1 methods entirely. In a resource-seeking environment, Mode 2 would likely be more attractive to outside funding agencies and investors due to its application-based principles. Mode 2 may not lead to increased social accountability rather than being held to social values, Mode 2 knowledge would respond to market values, thus will privilege certain kinds of knowledge over others. In this sense, Mode 2 is related to academic capitalism that proposes market-relevant knowledge production. From an academic capitalism perspective, Mode 2 can have a tendency to focus on disciplines with well-known possibilities for commercial use, i.e. technology and medicine, whereas other disciplines may be mostly ignored. By the same token, since both concepts are normative, the system of norms may be well affected especially among traditional researchers within social sciences. In this area, internal interests for research questions seem to be far away from industrys interest for commercial products or the governments interest for useful results. However, one can make an argument supporting Mode 2 and somehow against the notions of academic capitalism. It has to be noticed that Mode 2 would not push research outside of the university, but rather that applied science and the facilities for training researchers would make university-industry relations stronger. For instance, the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 and related intellectual property legislation profoundly affected the commercial poten tial of government-sponsored research and still allowed research to be conducted within the realm of universities walls. Thus, technology transfer was quite symbolic and the Act was a step toward developing a social exchange between university science and society. In this sense, Mode 2 can be seen as a positive engine that transformed the public research model. Moreover, knowledge production is crucial because knowledge society seen through the lens of academic capitalism would focus more on the activities of higher education institutions in the two countries in a particular regional sphere. Thus, the argument may take us to propositions of globalization and internationalization. A critique that may arise from academic capitalism proponents is the fact that there is no support for a merger of interests between researchers and industry. Researchers at the institutes (or centers of excellence) instead devote their precious time to a shorter research perspective that is strictly coming from the industry or directed toward it. This process was seen as influenced by reductions in state-support, an explanation quite close to the one put forward by Slaughter Leslie (1997). Thus, Mode 2 may jeopardize a strictly public focus of research universities when these start heavily getting involved with the industry. Even though Mode 2 involves multidisciplinary teams brought together for short periods of time to work on specific problems in the real world, this concept, from strictly academic capitalism critique, may not show any organizational diversity, which is at the core of academic capitalism. Also, academic capitalism may criticize Mode 2 as a concept of political i deology rather than a descriptive theory that academic capitalism claims to be. As for similarities, both concepts apply that there are three major actors in science university, industry and government and these extend beyond their former specific areas and change their former roles in closer collaborations for the benefit of economic development of society, thus academic capitalism partly confirms the claims of rising Mode 2. From the perspective of institutional theory, Mode 2 is a problem related to institutional structures. From an institutional theory standpoint, there are templates for organizing institutions that are implicitly understood and translated to new members of an organization. Moreover, these templates are interpretive schema, underlying values and assumptions, similar to mental models (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; Scott, 1995). Templates of institutional behavior create resistance to change. One concept within the institutional theory that has regularly been applied to higher education institutions to explain change is institutional isomorphism (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983), which suggests that institutions do not change as a result of a competitive market, external pressures or efficiency, but rather through the force of homogenization, striving to be like other types of colleges perceived to be elite. Mode 2 contrasts with institutional theory in the sense of the concept of change because influence of market and other external forces (such as NGOs or TNOs) create a high degree of heterogeneity among institutions. Institutional isomorphism also suggests that institutions tend not to be distinctive in their identity development or image, while Mode 2 emphasizes on organizations that do not have to necessarily conform to the rules and belief systems prevailing in the existing environment. For instance, older and well-established universities with strong cultures will have more specific power to resist change, while other institutions may be more vulnerable to market ideas. Since universities are complex and conflicted organizations, the institutional isomorphism that is projected by institutional theory may be one of the limitations of this theory to encourage distinctiveness and diversity of HED institutions. A critique that might arise from the institutional theory perspective is that the institutions have to learn to share their resources (physical, intellectual and  ¬Ã‚ nancial) with other kinds of knowledge producing institutions. According to Janson (2002), this task may be very difficult to accomplish considering that universities have held the monopoly among knowledge producers. Mode 2 is a threat to this status quo by encouraging alliances as well as collaborative relationships with other knowledge producers. Another critique from an IT standpoint is that Mode 2 would change standards of evaluation and accreditation as well as success and progression that would encourage more of a multidisciplinary context. For IT proponents, disciplinary boundaries are important, thus not only is traditional career path model being challenged by Mode 2, but also the nature of the undergraduate curriculum. Mode 2 is not the only knowledge production model that is challenging the more traditiona l, basic sciences model, but globalization and internationalization as well. According to Gibbons (1994), knowledge is transdisciplinary, problem-oriented, application-based, team-driven, multi-sited, partnership-based, socially useful, heterogeneous, quality controlled, re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ective and responsive, and less hierarchical than disciplinary knowledge of the kind produced in universities, that is being characterized as typically centered on disciplines, with academic hierarchies, more norm-concentrated, authoritative in regards to social behavior as well as concerned with homogeneity. Another critique is that it will be hard to protect academia from worldwide economic trends as well as production of knowledge in purely economic terms. Because Mode 2 is strictly defined in economic terms, all institutions may have a tendency for duplication and may follow one economic trend in order to survive. Scott (1995) indicates that, in order to survive, organizations must conform to the rules and belief systems prevailing in the environment because institutional isomorphism, both structural and procedural, will earn the organization legitimacy (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; Meyer and Rowan, 1977). The institutional theory claims that change is less likely to happen within or among organizations, while Mode 2 encourages change especially toward the private sector being more entrepreneurial and challenging the traditional values found especially in higher education institutions. While institutional theory supports traditional values of HED institutions, Mode 2 encourages growth o f those hybrid organizations that capitalize on connections to teaching, research, and service. 4. The most important differentiation is that the concepts of globalization and internationalization that are characterized by glonacal agency heuristic (GAH) are situated above the level of nation-state. GAH as a method of thought focuses on institutions, positions, agency, and structure at three levels: national, local, and global. The concept focuses on colleges and universities (and units and faculty within them) as global agents, encouraging studies of activity and stratification regionally and internationally. However, it is not a method of positioning yourself relative to others. Globalization is not universal, because it does not feel the same for everyone, thus it is not inevitable. In this respect, globalization is uneven and asymmetrical. Moreover, the pressure that it is felt as an institution most of the time mediates. For instance, even if the pressure comes from a national or global context, the local arena may be able to mediate things. For instance, Raytheon company has a heavy involvement on the University of Arizona, however does not have hardly any on Pima Community College. On the other hand, the PCC has a pressure from auto repair industry in cooperation with Jim Click to have mechanics to fix cars. Thus, GAH provides a different response of institutions to globalization. It seems that for GAH there is no separation between globalization and internationalization because both are a total of complex interactions of human and institutional agencies at local, national, and global levels. Marginson and Rhoades (2002) define two types of agency: human agency and institutional agency. For them, it is all about positioning things not individuals. For instance, a supranational agency such as the World Bank has an im pact in developing countries, and the whole impact is being driven by market forces; thus individuals do not shape the globalization process. It takes a lot of agencies to understand what is going on and understand and find a point of where we could resist the impact. According to GAH there is limited analysis of the complex agencies and processes that define them; no global dimension to analyze yet. Thus, with it more comparative studies need to be conducted to know human agency better and also local dimensions institutions and agents. While depicting GAH, the authors base their concept on Clarks description of academic profession that is structured by a triangle, in which market-state is a starting point, from which everything spills over to disciplines and professions as well to government and management. Knight (2004) replies to this issue with the process of internationalization that is supposed to be happening on a continuum basis. Her concept of internationalization is chara cterized similar to Clarks description as a triangle, in which interactions may be of hexagonal shape, but the whole process of internationalization will happen on a continuum basis. For Knight, globalization/internationalization is binary and is an omnipresent force that institutions have to respond to. It is similar to the Newtonian account of action and reaction. However, unlike Marginson and Rhoades, she is interested in institutions approaches (the ways in which they internationalize) and their rationale (why you are doing it explanations and goals), and how they interconnect (by preparing students to exist in global society or bringing in faculty from around the world). Thus, reciprocity is of important value to this concept. It is up to you how you are changing the world. So in that sense, Knight disagrees with Marginson and Rhoades that there is opportunity for everyone to progress. It is worth mentioning that the concept of internationalization is often confused with globalization (Altbach, 2004). The main difference is that globalization may not be unalterable, but internationalization is a process involving many choices. Globalization tends to concentrate wealth, knowledge, and power in those already possessing these elements, thus diminishing the importance of peripheries. International academic mobility similarly favors well-developed education systems and institutions, thereby compounding existing inequalities. Initiatives and programs, coming largely from the north, are focused on the south. The key here is that Altbach summarizes programs and activities relevant to the American study abroad tradition while Knight emphasizes on internationalization as a process. For Knight, internationalization is a two-way street that serves important needs. For Altbach, the concept is focused largely on the south-north spectrum, where students move primarily from south to north, where north controls the process. In this sense, Altbachs approach is based on radical dependency theory that relies on neo-colonialism core. Also, I got an impression that Knights concept of internationalization is not focused on economic (mostly financial) ends. Instead, internationalization is supposed to enhance research, knowledge, and cultural understanding. For instance, one of the initiatives may include study-abroad experiences or enrichment of curriculum through offering a major in international studies or other area studies. Deeply in the core, it does not seem that the process is intended to bring financial profits, but strategically implemented will enhance competitiveness and institutional prestige. However, the process itself, if not controlled, may focus too much on institutional strategies and policies while excluding national governments. In the same aspect, I could sense a tint of skepticism in Altbachs approach in regards to an economic trend of globali zation. Even though he acknowledges the trend and claims it is inevitable, he emphasizes on negative aspects of internationalization as a process that will further diminish the intellectual as well as cultural sides within the developing countries. In addition, Knights definition of internationalization seems to limit itself to the teaching function of the institution by concentrating on the expansion of international curriculum. Although both articles of Altbach and Knight are written in the same year, it seems that Altbach hardly mentions supranational organizations while Knight already acknowledges the new trend proclaiming that not only institutions and national policy makers alone are driving the internationalization, but supranational organizations as well. The tendency for Knight is to look at challenges that globalization presents us from an insider perspective how institutions as well as individuals react to globalization through internationalization, while Altbachs approach can be seen from the outsider perspective that acknowledges institutions, but not the processes and individuals within.

Developmental economics Essay

Brain drain which is also known as the human capital flight, which can simply be defined mass migration of technically skilled people from one country to another country. In more simple words brain drain refers to the departure of skilled and educated people, like doctors, engineers, accountants, economists, scientists from one country to another to seek better life opportunities. Developing nations like Pakistan is badly suffering from brain drain. According to official estimates of Pakistan’s Overseas Employment Corporation, close to 36,000 professionals, including doctors, engineers and teachers, have migrated to other countries in the last 30 years. This report is based on the brain drain which has taken Pakistan aback, because of the very mass migration in the last few years. The background is given first which explains what brain drain really is. Then further the introduction is given which tells which parts of the world are affected by the brain drain and which ones are benefited by the brain gain. In the literature review part, different articles are summarized which gives us the detailed information about the current situation of brain drain in Pakistan and other developing countries. The last but the important part is the analysis in which all the articles are analyzed and then suggestions are given. Introduction: In the history there are many examples of brain drain. The brain drain initially started in 1492 when Jews were expelled after the catholic re conquest of Spain. As the Jews were dominating financial services in the country, so their migration caused future economic problems in Spain. This was the first brain drain which happened in the history. In 1685 we get an example of a huge brain drain with estimates ranging from 200,000 to 1000,000 in France, where the king Louis XIV forced the Protestants to walk out of the country. The migration of Protestants, who were technically skilled, was a huge loss from which the kingdom could not recover for many years. In 1930’s the law in Europe caused the migration of many scientists to US. Albert Einstein was one of the migrating ones, who permanently migrated to us from Germany in 1933. Brain drain is common among developing Asian nations: India, Pakistan, Middle East countries like Iran and Iraq, African countries etc. In contrast developed countries like USA, Canada, and UK etc have brain gain from this happening. Brain drain usually affects the developing or under developing countries due to mass migration of technically skilled people to developed countries, which in turn are benefited by the brain gain. In the recent years, developing country Pakistan has suffered a lot from the brain drain. Philip Bonosky, who writes in his book ‘Washington secret war against Afghanistan† that Pakistan, is the only country who has suffered from the brain drain to a great extent. The graduates migrate in order to get jobs, because nearly 3000 fresh graduates are jobless yearly. Number of Pakistanis migrating to different countries is increasing every year, and most of the migrating people are educated, either doctors, engineers, or other professionals who has no hope of better career in Pakistan. Not only the professionals but also the workers and labor also want to go abroad for higher pays. The brain drain is usually a problem in the poor countries like Pakistan, with very unstable economic situations. Poor people usually suffers because they do not earn enough to serve their families, which eventually leads to migrate to the developed countries, who offers them incentives and higher pays which can improve their living standards. Literature review: According to Dodani and Laporte’s article, the health care migrations to the developed countries are from the developing countries, especially south Asia. This migration is a growing concern in the developing countries because such an outflow of medical doctors from these countries has an adverse affect on health of the population of home countries of the migrants. Dodani and Laporte also points out that the developing countries are working hard to apply such policies which can slow down the migrations, but they say that this might not be possible because of unstable economic and political situations of the home country. Dodani and Laporte also claim that the main cause of the migration is the huge difference in the pays that the doctors receive in the source country and the destination country. According to the article the Pakistani doctorates are not awarded for their good performance, which make them migrate to developed countries. Dodani and Laporte suggests that the developed countries needs to find out the major reasons behind the mass migration and needs to resolve their security problems and provide the doctorates with opportunities in future. According to the research paper by Jenkins R, Kydd R, Mullen P, Thomson K, Sculley J, et al, huge numbers of psychiatrists who are working in the developed countries are from the poor or developing countries, including Pakistan. They mentioned a survey conducted by World Psychiatric Association Taskforce on brain drain regarding the reason for the migration of psychiatrists, and the survey showed that the main reason was the lack of multidisciplinary approach and the poor treatment conditions of the patients. The researchers also pointed out that the health workers also have the right to lead a better life, give proper education to their children. The lack of the economic and political stability and the lack of better living conditions the health workers have no other option other then migration. The researcher mentioned the frequent argument done regarding brain drain that the poor countries also gain form the remittance that the migrants send back to the source countries. So the researchers argue hat the loss of one health worker is much larger then the gain of remittance, which is not given to the poor people of the country, rather is sent to the family which is already better off. According to Mullen, MD’s article, the Indian subcontinent which includes Pakistan is the main source of physician for the recipient countries. According to the article, International medical graduates constitute between 23 and 28 percent of the physician workforces of the recipient countries, with lower-income countries contributing between 40. 0 percent (in Australia) and 75. 2 percent (in the United Kingdom) of the international medical graduates in recipient countries Mullen claims that the subcontinent, which is India and Pakistan is badly affected by the brain drain, Mullen argues that, although the source country is benefited from the payments that the migrants send to their country but yet it adversely affects the situation back in their country. It affects their own nation’s ability to survive due to lack of physicians in their country. According to Saracen’s article, the labor in developing nations are paid less because of the majority being unskilled, due to which the skilled labor also suffers by getting lower pays which makes them migrate to other countries in order to get higher pays and better standards of living. According to the article, the brain drain has an adverse affect because the home country spends a lot on educating and training the individuals, who then migrate and benefit the developed countries that have not spent a penny on their education. Saracen’s argues that the Developing countries, such as Pakistan suffers from brain drain due to lack of infrastructure, whereas the Developed Countries benefits from the process. Saracen’s suggests that the government should make future planning regarding the improvement of living standards and properly allocate the societies abilities.

The Importance of Free Informative Essay Topics

The Importance of Free Informative Essay Topics New Ideas Into Free Informative Essay Topics Never Before Revealed Students who find it hard to compose an informative essay after reviewing examples and ideas from experts don't need to panic. Once you get your proposal essay ideas, it's the right time to get started writing. Do not be concerned, EssayPro is here in order to teach our students everything they will need to learn about crafting an informative essay! Though there are systematic ways on composing your very own informative essay, it can be challenging to do. Informative essays should begin with completing an outline. An informative essay is thought to be one of the most effortful assignments a student can receive. Choosing informative essay topics can stall your writing process for quite a long time, as you just do not understand what things to write about. Choosing good informative essay topics is simple if you understand how to go about doing it. 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